Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics Essay Example for Free

Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics Essay Introduction: The Beginning of the â€Å"Continental Drift Theory† In the middle of the eighteenth century, James Hutton proposed a theory, uniformitarianism; â€Å"the present is the key to the past†. It held that processes such as geologic forces- gradual and catastrophic-occurring in the present were the same that operated in the past. (Matt Rosenberg, 2004) This theory coincides with the theory of Continental Drift that was first proposed by Abraham Ortelius in December 1596, who suggested that North, South America, Africa and Eurasia were once connected but had been torn apart by earthquakes and floods. He also discovered that the coasts of the eastern part of South America and the western coasts of Africa fit together like a jigsaw puzzle and this fit becomes especially prominent as the edges of the continental shelves have similar shapes and thus, appear to be once fitted together. (Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2) The similarity of southern continents’ geological formations had led Roberto Mantovani to speculate that all continents had once been a supercontinent and was smaller in its volume than it is now. Through volcanic activity, fissures are created in the crust causing this continent to break apart. However, this theory, known as the Expanding Earth Theory has since been proven incorrect. The Theory of Continental Drift In 1912, The Theory of Continental Drift was intensively developed by Alfred Wegener, who claimed that the world was made up of a single gigantic supercontinent named Pangea since the Permian period, 250 million years ago. It began forming at the beginning of the Carboniferous period, 365 million years ago, when Gondwana collided into Laurussia producing the Appalachian mountain belt in eastern North America and closing in Paleo-Tethys Ocean and modern landmass became exposed to air. Alexander Du Toit then suggested that 145-200 million years ago, in the middle Jurassic Period, Pangea started breaking up into two smaller supercontinents, Laurasia in the northern hemisphere and Gondwana in the southern hemisphere, with Tethys Sea and North Atlantic Ocean separating the two supercontinents. The late Jurassic era began the formation of the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada mountains. In the Cretaceous Period, 65 million years ago, the two supercontinents then began fragmenting into the present seven continents. (USGS, 2012) The Tethys Sea that lay between the two landmasses was subducted beneath Eurasia, forming the lower Atlantic Ocean. Eventually, it disappeared. (Nelson Thomas, 2007) (Figure 2) Wegener proposed that continents were moving at about one yard per century and supported this theory with several points of evidence. Evidence supporting the Theory of Continental Drift (Alfred Wegener and Du Toit) Alfred Wegener matched up coastlines, and he realized that by fitting the continental shelves together, cratons formed a contiguous pattern across the boundary of South America and Africa. (Lois Van Wagner, 2013) He realized that mountain ranges that ended at one coastline seemed to begin again on another such as ancient mountains in South Africa that align with the mountains in near Buenos Aires in Argentina. (Sant, Joseph, 2012) He discovered earthworms of the family Megascolecina, who are unlikely to be long-distance migrators, were found in soils of all the Gondwanaland continents. (kangarooistan, 2009) This identical species could not have arisen on different continents without some variations. (WiseGeek, 2010) Fossil remains of a prehistoric reptile known as the Mesosaurus had been uncovered on both sides of the South Atlantic coasts, yet the creature was unable to swim across the Atlantic Ocean. ( Lois Van Wagner, 2013) Fossils of the land reptile, Lystrosaurus were discovered in South America, Africa and Antarctica. (Sant, Joseph, 2012). He also discovered the fossil plant Glossopteris was distributed throughout India, South America, Southern Africa, Australia and Antarctica. (USGS, 2012)(Figure 3) Alexander Du Toit traveled to Brazil and Argentina where he found similarities in the fossils and rock strata to those found in South Africa such as the fossilized remains of Mesosaurus in fresh water deposits, dune deposits capped by basalt flows, tillite and coal beds. Similar layers of rock were formed in Antarctica, Australia, South America, Africa and India. (Figure 4) Widespread distribution of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments in South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica and Australia and striations that indicated glacial flow away from the equator and towards the poles were discovered and supported the theory of Continental Drift which proposed that southern continents were once located over the South Pole region and covered by ice sheets. (Lois Van Wagner, 2013) (Figure 4) He also discovered a base layer of shale scratched by glaciers and covered by layers of tillite in South Africa, a continent of a tropical equatorial climate. Tillites and varves dating back to 2 billion years ago, were found in Canada and India, indicating glaciation on a worldwide scale. Such tillites were found on all major continents except Antarctica, which has been the most extensive glacial continent in earth’s history. (kangarooistan, 2009) Additionally, fossils of tropical plants in the form of coal deposits were found in Antarctica which implies that Antarctica had to be closer to the Equator. (USGS, 2012) This study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth is known as paleoclimatology. Sediments of rifting have proved the drifting apart of Pangea. The rifting that formed the South Atlantic Ocean began late in the Mesozoic Period when Africa and South America began to pull apart. Water from the south then flowed in over time, thus forming the evaporites now found along the coastlines there. (Lois Van Wagner, 2013)(Figure 5) However, Wegener believed that only the continents were moving and they plowed through the rocks of the ocean basins. (Colliers Encyclopedia, 1996) Harold Jeffreys then argued that it is impossible for continents to break through solid rock without breaking apart. (USGS, 2012) Wegener also claimed that the centrifugal force of the spinning planet had forced the continents sideways, parallel to the equator; tidal pull from the sun and moon had caused lateral movement. (Sant, Joseph, 2012) His orders of magnitude were too weak. Thus, his theory was dismissed. (Lois Van Wagner, 2013) Further development and support of the â€Å"Continental Drift Theory† in the 1960s After World War 2, the U.S. Office of Naval Research intensified efforts in ocean-floor mapping, leading to the discovery of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge to be part of a continous system of mid-oceanic ridges on all ocean floors, prompting Harry H. Hess to suggest the theory of sea-floor spreading. The oldest fossils found in ocean sediments were only 180 million years old and little sediment were accumulated on the ocean floor. Thus, he suggested that seafloors were no more than a few hundred million years old, significantly younger than continental land due to hot magma rising from volcanically active mid-oceanic ridges, spreading sideways, cooling on the seafloor’s surface due to cooler temperatures of the sea, solidifying to create new seafloor, thereby pushing the tectonic plates apart. (Edmond A. Mathez, 2000) The realization that the shape of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Atlantic Coast are strikingly similar substantiated the claim that the continents had been joined together at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. (J. Tuzo Wilson, 1996) (Figure 6) The cause of the continental drift that Wegener was unable to explain had been further researched on by Arthur Holmes who claimed that the movement of continents was the result of convection currents driven by the thermal convection in the heat of the interior of the Earth, namely the mantle. The heat source of the mantle comes from radioactivity decay in the core. (Figure 7) At constructive plate boundaries, molten basalt flows out on either side of the ridge and cools with the iron particles in the basalt aligning with the earth’s magnetic field which reverses direction every few hundred thousand years. (Lois Van Wagner, 2013) Due to magma cooling, the polarity of rocks will be recorded at the time it was formed. (Figure 8.1) In 1950, researchers of paleomagnetism discovered that there were alternating regions of normal and reversed magnetic directions symmetrically disposed on both sides of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge –magnetic stripping. (J. Tuzo Wilson, 1996) Harry H. Hess’ theory was thus proven by the magnetic anomalies in the oceanic crust. (Nelson Thomas, 2007) (Figure 8.2) It was also discovered that the youngest rocks were closest to the mid-oceanic Ridge and the oldest rocks were near the coasts of the continents. When scientists began collecting magnetic data for North America and Europe, they discovered the north pole seemed to be moving about over time. (ALLA, 2009) However, when data from other continents was collected for the same time frames, it showed different polar locations, thus supporting that continents were moving about. The Theory of Plate Tectonics The theory of plate tectonics held that the Earth’s lithosphere, the Earth’s crust and the uppermost mantle, is broken into seven macro-plates and about twelve smaller ones, averaging 50 miles in width. (U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey, 2007) Any plate may consist of both oceanic crust and continental crust. (Colliers Encyclopedia, 1996) (Figure 9) It suggests that the ocean floor began to spread at constructive plate boundaries, and continents, existing on â€Å"plates†, moved due to convection currents in the mantle and constant sea-floor spreading. (The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2011). They drag and move plates above them due to rising magma spreading out beneath the earth’s crust. As two oceanic plates move apart, magma from the underlying asthenosphere mantle wells up from oceanic ridges and becomes rigid enough to join the lithosphere of the plates on either side of the plate boundary, creating new seafloor and eventually, an oc ean is opened up. (J. Tuzo Wilson, 1996) (Figure 10) Examples are the Atlantic Ocean formed between South America and Africa. New rock is created by volcanism at mid-oceanic ridges and returned to the Earth’s mantle at oceanic trenches where the denser plate is subducted under the other, forcing the earth’s crust back into the mantle. (J. Tuzo Wilson, 1996) This process is known as the ridge push and slab-pull. (Figure 11) Different plate tectonics movement and subsequent tectonic activities Transform plate movement causing earthquakes: Seismic waves disrupting the continents in the form of earthquakes are due to the great amount of stress and energy built up by the friction of the moving plates, especially during transform plate movement, where plates slide past each other in a grinding, shearing manner and form tear faults (Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2011). (Figure 12.1) There is gradual bending of rocks before the ductile limit of rocks is exceeded, causing the plates to lock and the fault to break, leading to sudden release of stored energy, causing earthquakes. (Nelson Thomas, 2007 ) An example is the strike-slip fault, San Andreas Fault in California. (Figure 12.2) (WiseGeek, 2010) Oceanic and Oceanic convergent plate movement: Other evidence of plate tectonics movement are most of the world’s active volcanoes located along or near the boundaries between shifting plates known as plate-boundary volcanoes. (J. Tuzo Wilson, 1996) When two oceanic plates collided, the denser plate will subduct under the other, forming a deep oceanic trench and form magma through hydration or decompression melting. The magma being less dense than the surrounding mantle, rises and escapes to the sea-floor through cracks in the earth’s crust, forming submarine volcanoes that rise above water to form a chain of volcanic islands known as island arcs, such as the Japan Islands. (Figure 13) Examples would be the Pacific Plate subducting underneath the North American Plate creating the Kuril Trench and the Japan Trench that can be found along the Pacific Ring of Fire. Many volcanoes such as Mount St. Helens, Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Pinatubo in the Phillipines are located along the perimeter of the Pacific Ocean Basin where boundaries of several plates such as the Nazca and the Cocos Plate are found, forming the Ring of Fire. (Fraser Cain, 2009) (Figure 14) Volcanoes formed not due to tectonic activities: 5 per cent of the world’s volcanoes are formed at isolated â€Å"hot spots† and many intra-plate volcanoes form roughly linear chains along the middle of oceanic plates. (The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2011)Examples are the Yellowstone National park and Hawaiian Islands, an intra-plate volcanic chain developed by the Pacific plate passing over a deep, stationary â€Å"hot spot†, located 60 km beneath the present-day position of the Island of Hawaii. Heat from this hotspot produced a constant source of basaltic magma by partly melting the overriding Pacific Plate. This magma rises through the mantle to erupt onto the seafloor, forming an active seamount. Over time, countless eruptions caused the seamount to grow until it finally emerges above sea level to form island volcanoes. The continuing plate movement eventually carries the island volcano away from the hotspot, cutting it off from the â€Å"hot spot† and creating another island volcano. This cycle is repeated, forming the Hawaiian Islands. (U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey, 2007) (Figure 15) Continental and Continental convergent plate movement: Continental fold mountain ranges are evidence of two continental plates that are thick and buoyant thus, preventing both plates from subducting. Instead, the two plates collide into each other forming fold mountain ranges in a process known as orogenesis. An example is the high elevation of the Tibetan plateau, fringed to the south by the Himalayas as the edges of the Indian and Eurasia plate buckle, uplift, fold and deform. Mt. Everest is the highest summit on Earth, yet Yellowband limestone that was originally part of the shallow seals of the Tethys Ocean was found on Mount Everest at a height of 8462m. (Figure 16) Oceanic and Continental convergent plate movement: Mountains are formed when oceanic crust is subducted under a continental crust, resulting in melting of rock, thus volcanic activity and causing the continental crust to deform, rise and buckle upwards under compressional forces. Examples are the Andes Mountain, the Chile-Peru Trench and the uplift of the Rockies and Appalachians in the past. (The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2007) The Table Mountains was formed approximately 250 million years ago, due to the Pacific plate subducting under the North American plate, (Mary Ann Resendes, 2012) thus creating the Sierra Nevada foothills, subsequently creating the Cape of Good Hope as the ocean erodes the soft sandstone of Table Mountains on the coast. (National Geographic, 1996) Other tectonic activities such as the Wadati-Benioff zones, that are earthquake zones parallel to oceanic trenches are also formed at such subduction zones and inclined from 40 to 60 degrees from the horizontal, extending several hundred kilometres into the mantle. (Figure 17) Continental and Continental divergent plate movement: When two continental crusts are pulled apart due to tensional forces, the area sinks and forms a rift valley and sea such as the East African Rift Valley and the Red Sea that runs from the Jordan Valley and into East Africa, already dotted with volcanoes such as Hermon. This is due to the area being stretched, causing the crustal material to thin, weaken and sink due to lowered density. (Figure 18) Isostasy Also, isostasy takes place wherever a large amount of weight such as the fold mountain ranges created from plate tectonics movements is formed or glaciers, pushes down the Earth’s crust and creates a small dent. Isostasy also takes place at divergent plate boundaries when a large amount of weight is removed from an area, causing that portion of the Earth’s crust to rise. Therefore, equilibrium in the earth’s crust is achieved such that forces elevating landmasses balances those tending to depress landmasses. (Learning Network, 1998) (Figure 19)

Essay --

Comparison Matrix Paper Chloe Dixon Grand Canyon University LDR2: Progression in Leadership Thought February 12, 2014 Introduction When analyzing transformational leadership, it is important to determine the fairness of a leader in an organizational setting. The article, â€Å"Are transformational leaders fair? A multi-level study of transformational leadership, justice perceptions, and organizational citizenship behaviors† (2010) by Cho and Dansereau focused on discovering the mental process that motivated the association between transformational leadership and individual and group-level multifocal managerial social responsibility behaviors. In â€Å"The Relationship Between Transformational Leadership Followers’ Perceptions of Fairness,† (2012) by Bacha and Walker, the focus shifted to study the relationship between transformational leadership and the employee’s discernment of fairness from the leader, whether it was distributive, procedural, and interactional in French firms. The connection between the two articles is their focus on transformational leadership and the relationsh ip between the follower’s perceptions of the leader. Cho and Dansereau (2010) determined their study was important to conclude how followers, individual and group-level, perceived transformational leaders. Bacha and Walker (2012) determined the procedures and interactions the leaders had with the employees were intensely acquainted with transformational leadership. Both articles presented their case for their research questions, validating their studies. Research Questions Although the articles shared similarities, each had their own disposition delineated by their research questions. Cho and Dansereau (2010) developed four research qu... ...rming relationships with employees was made clear by being efficient and fair to preserve and inspire their workforce. These results can be further studied in a dissertation that is duplicated in a different culture to test the consistency of its findings. Using the information from these two studies, it is clear that transformational leaders behaviors have an impact on their follower’s perception (Bacha and Walker, 2012; Cho and Dansereau, 2010). References Bacha, E., & Walker, S. (2013). The Relationship Between Transformational Leadership and Followers' Perceptions of Fairness. Journal Of Business Ethics, 116(3), 667-680. Cho, J., & Dansereau, F. (2010). Are transformational leaders fair? A multi-level study of transformational leadership, justice perceptions, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Leadership Quarterly, 21(3), 409-421.

Collisions Lab

Collisions in Two Dimensions Abstract: This lab was conducted to investigate the theories of conservation of momentum and kinetic energy in different types of 2D collisions. In order to do this, both an elastic and inelastic collision was conducted on an air table with pucks. A video was taken and analyzed to determine velocity, allowing for future finding of momentum and kinetic energy values. By finding these, it was possible to determine which kind of collision took place. With low values of change in momentum and kinetic energy that occurred in elastic collisions, it is understood that both are conserved in this type of collision.However, in the inelastic collision, momentum is conserved while kinetic energy is not. Possible error in this lab may have resulted from the neglect of friction and rotational kinetic energy. Overall, however, the results matched up well with the expected values. The objective of the lab was therefore met. Objective: The objective of this lab is to supp ort that momentum will be conserved in all forms of collisions, and that kinetic energy will be conserved only in elastic collisions. Materials: Materials used in this lab were a video camera, an air table with pucks and Velcro bands, and Logger Pro software.Procedure: Videos of collisions of air hockey pucks will be recorded onto the computer’s hard drive. Two different types of collisions will be analyzed. The first will be nearly-elastic, with each puck going separate directions after the collision. The other type is completely inelastic with each buck bearing Velcro so as to stick together upon collision. The first collision requires first setting an origin on the video. Using the Set Scale tool, a distance scale will be set. Trajectory of the center puck is marked and an arbitrary time is picked at which data will begin being extracted.Points will then be added one frame at a time until enough measurements are taken before and after the collision. This is then repeated o n the incident puck. This is done for both the center and the white dot on each puck. This data is automatically entered into Logger Pro. The data sets are then graphed. Straight lines are fitted to the graphs to determine the velocities , wich will be used to determine angular speed of the puck’s rotation. A new video will be analyzed in part two. In this collision the position of the center of mass of both pucks will be tracked, along with the position of the center of one of the pucks.This will result in 8 sets of data points. Linear fits are used to determine the velocity components of each. Radius is then used to calculate angular velocity. Results: ELASTIC COLLISION| | Mass 1| Mass 2| V1ix| V1iy| V1fx| V1fy| V2fx| V2fy| | | 0. 05| 0. 05| 2. 557| 1. 511| 0. 077| 1. 056| 2. 488| 0. 3909| | Errors| | | 0. 003525| 0. 003886| 0. 002806| 0. 003190| 0. 00481| 0. 003588| | | P1ix| P1iy| P1i| P2ix| P2iy| P2i| Pi Tot| | | | 0. 1279| 0. 0756| 0. 04174| 0| 0| 0| 0. 04174| | | Error s| | | 0. 0001061| | | 0| 0. 0001061| | | | P1fx| P1fy| P1f| P2fx| P2fy| P2f| Pf Tot| ? P| ? P/Pi| | 0. 1654| 0. 03378| 0. 03761| 0. 01316| -0. 00198| 0. 01331| 0. 05092| 0. 00918| 0. 2199| Errors| | | 0. 001665| | | 0. 000224| 0. 00168| | | | KE1i| KE2i| KEi Tot| KE1f| KE2f| KEf Tot| ? KE| ? KE/KEi| | | 0. 01767| 0| 0. 01767| 0. 01435| 0. 001796| 0. 01615| -0. 00152| -0. 08602| | INELASTIC COLLISION| | Mass 1| Diameter 1| Mass 2| Diameter 2| V1ix| V1iy| V1fx| V1fy| V2Fx| V2Fy| | 0. 052| . 05| 0. 052| 0. 05| 1. 361| 1. 231| 0. 7372| 0. 9625| 0. 5867| 0. 9481| Errors| | | | | . 007372| . 005637| . 04805| . 02558| . 007288| . 02936| | P1ix| P1iy| P1i| P2ix| P2iy| P2i| Pi Tot| | | | | 0. 2832| 0. 02731| 0. 03934| 0| 0| 0| 0. 03934| | | | Errors| | | 0. 000164| | | 0| 0. 000164| | | | | P1fx| P1fy| P1f| P2fx| P2fy| P2f| Pf Tot| ? P| ? P/Pi| | | 0. 01479| 0. 01901| 0. 02409| 0. 02274| 0. 02443| 0. 03338| 0. 03338| -0. 00596| -0. 1515| | Errors| | | 0. 000242| | | 0. 000243| 0. 000343| | | | | ? | KE1i| KE2i| KE rot i| KEi Tot | KEf lin = KE1f = KE2f| KEf Rot| KEf Tot| ? KE| ? KE/KEi| | 3. 27| 0. 015| 0| 0| 0. 015| 0. 005387| 0. 003397| 0. 008784| -0. 00622| -0. 4144| Data Analysis: Angular Velocity =vr Conservation of Momentum: Elastic: x-component 1v1ix+m2v2ix=m1v1fx+m2v2fx 502. 557+500=50. 077+502. 488 127. 85=128. 25 Error:. 311% y-component m1v1iy+m2v2iy=m1v1fy+m2v2fy 501. 511+500=501. 056+50. 3909 75. 55=72. 345 Error:4. 24% Inelastic: x-component 50(1. 361)+50(0)=50(. 7372)+50(. 5867) 68. 05=66. 2 Error:2. 8% y-component 50(1. 231)+50(0)=50(. 9625)+50(. 9481) 109. 675=95. 53 Error:12. 9% Conservation of Kinetic Energy 12m1v1i2+12m2v2i2+12I11i2+12I12i2= 12m1v1f2+12m2v2f2+12I11f2+12I12f2 12506. 54+1250(0)+12(15625)(. 01)+12(15625)(. 003)= 12(50)(. 006)+12(50)(6. 19)+12(15625)(. 0018)+12(15625)(. 0002) 265. 0625=270 Masses measured in [kg]*Velocities measured in [m/s] *Momentums measured in [kgm/s]*Energies measured in [J] * ? measured in [rad/s] Discussion: The theories of conservation of momentum and conservation of energy in collisions in two dimensions were supported in this lab. While conservation of momentum was supported through both elastic and inelastic equations, conservation of energy was supported only through elastic collisions. Rotational kinetic energy also played a role in the results. The theories are highly supported due to the low amount of error present in this lab.In calculating the final results of kinetic energy and momentum, mass and velocity measurements were used. Momentum and kinetic energy are variables dependent on those of mass and velocity, the independent variables. Because the graphs were position vs. time graphs, the velocity could be derived by looking at the slope. Because the change in momentum in the elastic equation was a relatively small change, momentum in this collision was proven to be conserved. Kinetic energy was also conserved, as is characteristic of elastic collisions, with another very small change.As expected, momentum was also conserved for the inelastic collision. Although the change in kinetic energy was small, the fact that there was some change supports it being an inelastic collision. Energy was not conserved, as expected. Some error in the lab could be contributed to the nearly (but not quite) frictionless air tables. Even slight friction may have affected the data. Another contributing factor to overall error could be the rotational kinetic energy not accounted for in the elastic collision, seeing as energy would have been added to the system.This error could be reduced or eliminated by taking rotational kinetic energy and friction into account. Conclusion: The objective of this lab was to support the theories of conservation of momentum in both elastic and inelastic collisions, and to support the theory of kinetic energy conservation in elastic collisions. Because the changes in the values of kinetic energy and momentum were so small, they proved insignifican t and the theories were supported. Therefore, the objective of the lab was met.

Historical Research On Two Problems - 2479 Words

ï ¿ ¼Historical Research on Two Problems Ebola Epidemic Problem The ebola virus is a very serious illness which commonly leads to death without the proper medical intervention and treatment. The virus’s first outbreak occurred in the 1970’s which caused a huge number of deaths across nations such as The Democratic Republic of Congo and Sudan. Recently, the virus has again resurfaced in Western Africa and is reported to be the next big pandemic to infect and torment the worlds population, similar to panic caused by SARS viral disease roughly ten years earlier. This most recent outbreak of Ebola is even more complex and much larger than its predecessor where cases have spread to a number of different countries across land in other places in the African continent and also by air travel into other continents. The diagnosis of the first ebola patient in North America, more specifically in Texas, USA, has created a state of panic amongst the population around America and especially to those living close to the infected individual. People around the world are fearing this exotic virus with extreme caution compared to other mundane germs and illnesses which pose a much more significant threat to the lives of the average American such as the influenza virus. 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